The European image of the Turks and Islam that had crystallized in the 15th and 16th centuries was quite stable. "Traces the Gothic impulses in proto-Romantic and Romantic British, American and European culture, 1740-1830"--Quatrième de couverture. "The Oriental"/"the Egyptian" was to him in every way the complete opposite of "the European"/"the Englishman": "… the Oriental generally acts, speaks, and thinks in a manner exactly opposite to the European. Polygamy led to "family despotism" because it made the woman the slave of the man, who – as a result – became a despot. "Fanaticism" was a new term that entered the discourse on Islam via the Enlightenment's critique of religion.68 It took the place of older judgmental terms such as falseness, heresy, sham and lawlessness, with which Islam and Muslims had previously been associated, that is, those stereotypes that Boulainvilliers had tried to refute with his biography of Muḥammad.69 He and other philosophers of the Enlightenment, such as Voltaire and Simon Ockley (1678–1720), appreciated the virtues of the Arabs and Muslims of the Middle Ages and praised their contributions to philosophy, medicine and other sciences.70 But, at the same time, they bemoaned the devastation that Muslim fanaticism had supposedly caused in the Middle East. Ravel's Daphnis et Chloé and Tzigane for Violin and Orchestra, Debussy's Syrinx for Flute Solo or . Çırakman, Aslı: From the "Terror of the World" to the "Sick Man of Europe": European Images of Ottoman Empire and Society from the Sixteenth Century to the Nineteenth, New York et al. European History Online (EGO), Edward Said and the Work of the Critic: Speaking Truth to Power As a result, different discourses of alterity arose defining the religious, cultural and social dichotomy between Europeans and Muslims. (eds. Stereotypes depicting a violent, irrational, fanatical and intolerant Islam, as well as a widespread "Islamophobia"147 are still being politically exploited today. Empirical insights and the use of scientific categories of description for Islam laid the foundation for a new understanding of religion, which made it possible to regard Islam as a religion equal to Christianity.52. So-called . From the "Turkish Menace" to Exoticism and Orientalism: Islam as Antithesis of Europe (1453-1914)? Varisco, Martin Daniel: Reading Orientalism: Said and the Unsaid, Seattle et al. Europe became the home of freedom, law, rationality, science, progress, intellectual curiosity, entrepreneurship and invention, all core values of Europeans that were traced back to the ancient Greeks, and that set them apart from the Orient, from Islam. 2002. In Rome, Using ‘Roman Holiday’ as a Guide. (eds. Secondly, the scientists and philosophers of that time (with one exception) were not Arabs, but Persians, Central Asians or Spaniards. Examples can be named almost at will, be it the "War on Terror" or the Swiss referendum on banning the construction of new minarets. Chapter 26: Dramatic Alternatives: Exoticism, Operetta, and Verismo I. Stereotyping the Other: "Orientalism" A. Cromer, Evelyn Baring, Earl of: Modern Egypt, London 1908, vol. In the writings and speeches of mid-15th-century Italian humanists, "Europe" was conceptualized as an entity that stood in sharp contrast to the Turks. MWAHAHAHAHHAHAHHAHAHAHHAHAHAHHAHHAHAHAHHHAHAHAHHAHAHAHAHAHAHHAHAHAAHAHHAHA!!! Apart from fanaticism and hostility to the sciences, another important prejudice was established by the Enlightenment, namely that of despotism. These made all things "Eastern" fashionable. Rather, the Muslim is seen as fanatical, not accepting new ideas and despising other religions as well as the sciences and the teachings that constitute the "European spirit".126 In his lecture, Renan posed the question as to what contributions the Arabic-Islamic civilization had made to the sciences and philosophy. Irwin, Robert: For the Lust of Knowing: The Orientalists and their Enemies, London 2006. 1. The . Jahrhundert, in: Gabriele Haug-Moritz et al. 1992 [Original French edition: L'Orient imaginaire: Vision politique de l'Est méditerranéen, Paris 1988]. Thus, the Sultan's rule was often described as a tyranny under which the Christian subjects, in particular, suffered. It was alleged that Islam does not know a separation of state and religion, that Muslims cannot conceive of a secular social and state order, that knowledge stagnates in Muslim societies and can only be developed through the adoption of European ideas and standards (Europeanization/Westernization is required), that Islam oppresses women and that Islam is anti-modern. There was no unanimity among theologians on how to interpret Islam as a practice of faith. Those recognized as . That is to say, Europeans – or Latin Christians – continuously determined, redefined and further developed their own identity in contrast to Islam and Muslims. Discourses of alterity and identity that are characterized by binary central terms carry numerous topoi, stereotypes and clichés. by Irene Riesen, Munich 1985]. "39 The religious-theological discourse of alterity that unanimously regarded Islam in a negative light – though for different reasons – and presented it as something diametrically opposed to Christianity could be developed from all three opinions mentioned above. Widening the Horizon is the first in-depth analysis of the music and its cultural context. Hourani, Albert: Islam in European Thought, Cambridge et al. By contrast, Renan is almost incapable of this appreciation.131. While . What might it mean when used regarding music? Edition 1st Edition. All larger communities define themselves to some degree in contrast to others. (2003), Framing “the Other”. The separation of Orient and Occident suggested by Cromer, Renan and other authors of the 19th century established a rigid dichotomy between Islam and Europe that was structured by binary pairs of opposites that always implied European superiority: order vs. chaos, rationality vs. irrationality, progress vs. stagnation, enlightenment vs. ignorance, democracy vs. despotism, human vs. inhuman. Studies in Travel Writing: Vol. Looking for the other: Feminism, film, and the imperial gaze. They not only served the analysis of alleged conditions in Muslim societies but could also be used at home in the battle against the power of the Church. ): Europa und die Türken in der Renaissance, Tübingen 2000 (Frühe Neuzeit 54), pp. However, the process of assuring the "self" by marking Islam off as a danger to the "self" has been a constant that has influenced the construction and shaping of European identity. Jahrhundert: Von einer romantischen Idee zu rücksichtsloser Realpolitik, online: http://www.europa.clio-online.de/2010/Article=438 [20/11/2012]. However, stereotypes persisted in many travel accounts. "Saracens", in: The Encyclopaedia of Islam2 9 (1997), p. 27. Boulainvilliers, Henri de: La vie de Mahomed, London 1730. 240–265. Grothaus, Maximilian: Zum Türkenbild in der Kultur der Habsburgermonarchie zwischen dem 15. und 18. Click here to navigate to parent product. Both the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V (1500–1558) and Sultan Süleyman I (ca. ): Europa im Nahen Osten – Der Nahe Osten in Europa, Berlin 2010. Oxford: Oxford University Press, p.243 . ), The Exotic in Western Music ( Boston, MA: Northeastern University Press, 1998 ). : What Do We Mean by Europe?, in: The Wilson Quarterly 21 (1997), pp. 11–38. WikiMatrix . Murphy, A. The tracing of the origin of the Turks back to the Scythian barbarians, the re-interpretation of the First Crusade as a European endeavour that served to defend Europe against the barbarians, and the transfer of the political and moral responsibility to "Europe" as a whole (as a "Fatherland", even) in anti-Turkish war rhetoric22 – all this contributed to a conceptualization of "Europe" as an entity with which Europeans could identify. 392–405. In general, Orientals were lethargic and conservative to such a degree that they resisted any innovation.145 Nevertheless, the English – an "imperial race" with "sterling national qualities", driven by selfless Christian morality – had a mission in Egypt: to bring order to chaos, to educate the immature Egyptians, who were not capable of governing themselves, and to elevate them morally and materially to a higher level, and to fight corruption.146 In other words, the English were the doctors of a sick society; their rule over the Egyptians, who were inferior due to race and religion, was not only legitimate, but even necessary. Valensi, Lucette: The Making of a Political Paradigm: The Ottoman State and Oriental Despotism, in: Anthony Grafton et al. Orientalism as an art form was not only a way of represent ation . In '984, there appeared . This iconic . 49–68. Jahrhundert, Munich 1998. Stereotypes and clichés of Islam have proved to be durable, but have also been subject to change over time and space. Exoticism RALPH P. LOCKE O ne of the most vivid exotic characters in all of opera is Dalila in Saint-Saëns's Samson et Dalila(1875). Western media portrays minority characters as uncivilized and actively promotes stereotypes such as orientalism, as seen in the Disney film Aladdin. In the 19th century, numerous stereotypes circulated that to a degree continue to shape the image of Islam and Muslims to this day. Employed Musically by Giacomo Puccini (1858-1924) within Madama Butterfly (1904)= Pitch selection-> No fairytale palaces could be found. By locating the piece historically among these texts and practices, and by using them as a referential network to read it hermeneutically, I demonstrate that rich cultural, political, and, for Ravel, personal meaning can be read into ... In Camera Orientalis, Ali Behdad examines the cultural and political implications of the emergence of photography in the Middle East. These essays also focus on various questions of imperialism, race, exoticism, along with other aspects of the exotic. Jahrhunderts, in: Dietrich Klein et al. by Henriette Psichari, Paris 1947, vol. (2015). The opposing confession could be "Turkified" by relating it and its teachings to Islam and presenting them as equally dangerous to one's own belief. The use of the terms "despotism" and "Oriental despotism" to characterize political and social systems in Asia, especially in the Middle East, became customary in the mid-18th century.72 However, it was already noticeable towards the end of the 16th century that the peculiarities of the Ottoman Empire's socio-political structure that had formerly been judged in a positive or neutral way were now regarded negatively. Though Luther was initially of the opinion that any resistance to this instrument of God was futile and that God's wrath could only be appeased by inner repentance, prayer and penance, and by overcoming the internal divisions among Christians, he later developed a theory of defensive war against the Turks.48 In his treatise Vom Krieg wider die Türken [On War Against the Turks]of 1529, however, he also rejected the papal crusading ideology since in his opinion only the secular authorities were permitted to wage war and then only for defensive purposes. When quoting a certain passage from the article please also insert the corresponding number(s), for example 2 or 1-4. Young, David: Montesquieu's View of Despotism and his Use of Travel Literature, in: Review of Politics 40 (1978), pp. were used to engender a willingness to fight the Ottomans.31 These could also be combined with biblical motifs, such as the iconography of the Massacre of the Innocents at Bethlehem.32 The Turks and, therefore, Muslims were thus depicted as the incarnation of evil.33 Such frightening images of the "archenemy of Christianity" not only circulated in the Holy Roman Empire, Italy and other territories bordering the Ottoman Empire, but in the rest of Europe as well. Exoticism may take the form of primitivism, ethnocentrism, or humanism. 207–233. Such discourses of alterity are manifested in very different genres of text: travel literature, the records of diplomatic missions, scientific treatises, literary texts, sermons, etc. Clicking Export to Refworks will open a new window, or an existing window if Refworks is open already. This hypothesis was gradually dismissed because it associated the Turks with the Europeans since the ancient Romans also claimed Trojan descent.19 A second hypothesis more suitable for depicting the Turks as strangers and "others" established itself towards the end of the 15th century. In the summer of 1798, French troops under Napoleon Bonaparte (1769–1821) invaded Egypt. The enigmatic signifier and the decentred subject.Â, Kaplan, E. A. * In the absence of a serious Postcolonial intervention on Exoticism, the Postcolonial critique of Orientalism and Exoticism has relied on the Relativist concepts of 'Exoticism' / Exotic' and their Eurocentric conceptual frameworks, while casting identification with the Exotic and writing back as Caliban as undermining colonial discourse and colonial representations . Thus, the remainder of Islamic history appears as decline and Islam is portrayed as irrelevant to modern history.109 This marginalization and removal of Islamic history from world history, which was increasingly seen as a European history, was also reflected in the growing specialization of the humanities. The descriptions of Turkish atrocities (murder, rape, carrying off captured Christians, destruction, arson, plunder, desecration of churches, etc.) Presenting numerous American encounters with and representations of Japanese music and Japan, this book reveals how music functions in exotic representation across a variety of genres and media, and how Japanese music has at various times ... In addition, racist ideas entered Renan's argument. Geldner, Ferdinand (ed. Rather, they were part of their world and could be used in propaganda against opposing confessions or to mirror the faults of one's own society. The term Orientalism was . Konrad, Felix: From the "Turkish Menace" to Exoticism and Orientalism: Islam as Antithesis of Europe (1453-1914)?, in: Europäische Geschichte Online (EGO), hg. Harbsmeier, Michael: Images of Despotism: Ottoman and Muscovite in German 16th and Early 17th Century Travel Accounts, in: Peter Ulf Møller (ed. Jahrhundert bis zur heutigen Zeit: Eine kritische Perspektive, Zurich 2005. Mertens, Dieter: Claromontani passagii exemplum: Papst Urban II. ): Europa und die Türken in der Renaissance, Tübingen 2000 (Frühe Neuzeit 54), pp. The term, as we currently use it, was popularized by scholar . Yet the two love songs with which she brings Samson low—"Printemps qui com-mence" and "Mon coeur s'ouvre à ta voix"—are not exotic in style. 173–203. This transformation initially occurred in western Europe.57 In the court society of Louis XIV (1638–1715) "turqueries" were becoming fashionable, gallant Moors and Muslim heroes appeared in French theatre and literature, while Muslim Spain (Al-Andalus) acquired positive connotations.58 Turks, Moors and everything Oriental were considered exotic in elite culture. He arrived at the conclusion that it at best contributed something to the knowledge of humanity only between the late-8th and the 12th centuries, and that this contribution did not come about because of Islam, but in spite of Islam and in opposition to Islam. Bousquet, G. H.: Voltaire et l'Islâm, in: Studia Islamica 28 (1968), pp. 2007. Renan's views of Islam can be found in his L'islamisme et la science, a paper he read at the Sorbonne in 1883 and which reflects ideas that were commonly held in Europe.125 For Renan, Islam was essentially hostile to the sciences. This linguistic usage was largely equivalent to the ethnic description of Muslims as "Saracens" in the Middle Ages,17 a term that fell out of use during the Early Modern period. The Brill Dictionary of Religion helps map out and define the networks and connections created by various religions in contemporary societies, and provides models for understanding these complex phenomena. ): Der Türkenkalender: "Ein manung der christenheit widder die durcken": Mainz 1454: Das älteste vollständig erhaltene gedruckte Buch: Faksimile und Kommentarband, Wiesbaden 1975. d'Herbelot, Barthélemy: Bibliothèque orientale ou Dictionnaire universel contenant généralement tout ce qui regarde la connoissance des Peuples de l'Orient, Paris 1697. (eds. This is essential theoretical and practical research for a multicultural society that is grounded in first-person, lived experience.” – Tyson E. Lewis, Ph.D., Associate Professor of Art Education, University of North Texas “Most ... (2012). Seen in this way, the propagandistic and political instrumentalization of the "dread of the Turks" played a major role in stabilising the political and social order.30, The image of the Turks in the 16th century was replete with topoi and stereotypes. Osterhammel, Jürgen: Die Entzauberung Asiens: Europa und die asiatischen Reiche im 18. 1983. Then again, Orientalism has survived—thrived, even—so long because of its reliance on . a discursive practice intent on recovering 'elsewhere' values 'lost' with the modernization of European Society and. Wheatcroft, Andrew: The Ottomans: Dissolving Images, London et al. "Moors", in: The Encyclopaedia of Islam2 7 (1993), p. 235. This survey article analyses the image of Islam from the mid-15th to the early 20th century. It is also used to describe a cultural view that is foreign to the aspect of the composed context. Bitte setzen Sie beim Zitieren dieses Beitrages hinter der URL-Angabe in Klammern das Datum Ihres letzten Besuchs dieser Online-Adresse ein. on eastern exoticism that are intrinsically cultured and have been living for hundred years. any particular pictorial style, it is rather its themes, such as the search of exoticism, sensuality . 11–27. Rodinson, Maxime: La fascination de l'Islam: Les étapes du regard occidental sur le monde musulman: Les études arabes et islamiques en Europe, Paris 1981 [German edition: Die Faszination des Islam, transl. ): The Idea of Europe: From Antiquity to the European Union, Washington 2002, pp. Ernest Renan (1823–1892) was a renowned professor, philologist and scholar of religion, who can be considered one of the outstanding French intellectuals of his time. 1–3. In the 1780s, Johann Gottfried Herder (1744–1803) described the Ottomans as strangers who did not belong to Europe because they were not only unwilling, but also incapable, of adapting to European culture.108 Around three and a half decades later, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831) in his Vorlesungen über die Philosophie der Weltgeschichte [Lectures on the Philosophy of World History] (1822–1823) described world history as a history of reason that realizes itself in time, with the course of history moving from East to West. Traces of the Flâneuse. Roland Barthes has argued that there is a significant difference between the way actual garments and representations of them are consumed and produced, therefore, in an assessment such as this, it cannot be assumed that exoticism - Orientalism - manifests itself in fashion imagery the same way that it does in the work of designers. the Orient.Societies and peoples of the Orient are those who inhabit the places of Asia, North Africa, and the Middle East.Said argues that Orientalism, in the sense of the . It is aimed at improving social or cultural . Cattrysse, P. (2010). 13–73. Already in 1454, Cardinal Enea Silvio Piccolomini (1405–1464), who subsequently became Pope Pius II (1458–1464)[], delivered a speech as imperial legate at the Reichstag (Imperial Diet) in Regensburg advocating a war against the Turks.9 As one of the most influential orators of his time, he pointed out the global historical importance of the "Turkish menace", the ecclesiastical, military and strategic significance of Constantinople, all the while appealing to the fundamental moral and political values of the Christian princes. 55–71. It depicts that the work of art in the given context differs from what is considered normal. 249–265. B. 1993. At the margin of Europe, the "Oriental question" became increasingly important, that is, the question of how much of the Ottoman Empire – which now became known as the "Sick man of Europe" – was to be preserved and which European powers were to have influence (and how much influence) in the lands of the Sultans without jeopardizing the European balance of power.
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